Rubens’s Elevation of the Cross embodies the prime example of Baroque art’s dynamism, passionate energy, and the integration of naturalistic depictions into the expression of grandeur and monumentality. The triptych features dramatic contrasts between highlights and shadows (chiaroscuro)—an visible influence from the Renaissance Italian master Caravaggio—which are most effectively used to illuminate the figure of Christ and to convey the emotive and dramatic moment depicted in the painting. Set against the somber backdrop of dark foliage, Christ’s torso is smooth and radiant as if placed directly under sunlight, subtly separating him from the rest of the figures and suggesting at his divine transformation in martyrdom. A similar kind of overexposure is evident on the faces and skin of the women and children in the left panel, highlighting their awe and horror in reaction to Jesus’ crucifixion. The depiction of human body in interlocked, flowing forms is also highly Baroque in character: Rubens shows influence from Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel Ceiling frescos in his naturalistic portrayal of muscular and robust bodies of the men assisting with the cross’s elevation, suggesting at a meticulous study of human anatomy; furthermore, the bodies’ muscular contortions effectively support the larger pyramidal structure of interlocked human figures in the middle panel, with Christ at the apex. While the pyramidal composition combines freedom and chaos with stability and harmony, the fitting of human forms into a dynamic, voluminous mass captures the instantaneous moment of action and the transcendental, heroic quality it embodies. Last but not least, the color scheme of Ruben’s triptych, consisting primarily of golden flesh tones, rendering the scene with warmth, vitality, and an air of sacredness; while conspicuous blocks of red and blue on garments worn by the figures provide counterpoint and dramatic tension typically seen in Baroque art.
Author: Samuel Xue
As the Renaissance gradually grows to its height, humanism becomes an ever more significant theme in Quattrocento Italian art. In alignment to the Renaissance educational model of the Studia humanitatis, artists and scholars devoted increased attention to areas of study promoted in classical antiquity, including rhetoric, literature, history, and philosophy. Meanwhile, as independent associations of artisans (guilds) grew in size and started training more learners, artistic activities became more communal; these guilds also developed close ties to commissioners (i.e. aristocrats, government representatives, and religious institutions), who served as artists’ patrons and saw through the establishment of guild artists’ work in city halls and private chapels. Sometimes these commissions take the form of a competition, as is the case of Ghiberti and Brunelleschi’s rivalry in sculpting the biblical scene of Isaac’s sacrifice on a gold relief for the Florence Cathedral. Brunelleschi’s interpretation features a rather organized composition with clear-cut figures and Isaac placed in the central position; the biblical story is depicted in a direct and literal manner, with an angel on the top left restraining Abraham’s arm and preventing his knife from reaching his son’s throat. In contrast, Ghiberti’s composition is more dynamic and florid, achieved through the flowing texture of draperies that both ties the figures together into on unity and also obscures their forms. In addition, the placement of Isaac near the right frame of the relief, combined with the lack of any actual contact between Isaac, Abraham, and the angel, shows an ambiguous interpretation of the original biblical scene and leaves the fate of the main characters still unclear. Ghiberti’s work is highly intense and psychological in that he skillfully crafted opposing forces in his relief and yet left them unresolved, still hanging in the seemingly frozen space and time in between the figures.
Disguised symbolism appears in many Dutch paintings produced in the Renaissance, a time when realism and naturalism became prominent trends and began to replace the abstract, conceptual approach that artists in the Middle Age took to represent religious scenes/figures. In the context where artists sought to depict their living environments faithfully according to observation by sight, disguised symbolism provided a means for them to imbue more complex and lasting meaning into an otherwise everyday (and uninteresting) setting, a mere section in time. The traditional Christian way of allegorical preaching and moralization—that individuals should not indulge the life of worldly pleasures but find transcendence in higher virtues—finds a proper medium in the symbolic potential of everyday objects/entities such as fruits, flowers, candles, mirrors, and animals. Jan van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait, for example, incorporates a rich amount of seemingly ornamental/minor details in portraying the interior of the bedroom where the groom and bride stand: casually placed shoes, which likens the floor to a sacred ground and suggests at the sacramental moment of oath-taking; fruits on a cabinet, almost hidden behind the robe the groom is wearing, which allude to fertility; and the backs of two additional figures in the convex mirror, who presumedly serve as witnesses for the wedding, but van Eyck also suggests at his own presence at the scene by incorporating a figure with a red turban—a signature of the artist himself. The inclusion of these commonplace but metaphorical objects envelops the Arnolfini Portrait in a mysterious air, while opening up its narrative to interpretation (e.g., concerning the relationship between the bride and groom, and concerning the religious nature of the wedding depicted on canvas). Many paintings like such present themselves as delicately designed puzzles similar to word games, and they imply the underlying philosophy that there is not one clear objective reality as perceived by the senses, but the everyday is capable of concealing many different stories that take place at other times or an alternate version of what seems to be happening.
I learned from today’s class that it was common for artists in early Renaissance (i.e. 14th century Italy) to paint about certain frequently revisited biblical scenes, such as Madonna holding baby Jesus and Jesus Christ’s return to Jerusalem. Different artists, however, took different approaches to portraying these scenes, and often turned to their predecessors’ work for reference and for a model to improve on. In Giotto’s 1310 altarpiece Madonna Enthroned, though the painter retained most of the biblical figures and their general placements in Cimabue’s earlier counterpart (dated c. 1280-90), Giotto employed a naturalistic approach to depicting the saints, angels, and Madonna/Jesus themselves, emphasizing on displaying the delicate lights and shadows enveloping the folds on their clothings. He also considerably expanded the sense of space in the panel by drawing from contemporary architectural influences, placing Madonna and Jesus in a recess under a Gothic-styled dome behind several finely painted steps. Transposing the biblical figures from a conceptual, mental space to a real-life setting, Giotto suggests at the possibility of the biblical canon overlapping with the everyday life in Renaissance.
Another interesting case where different artists’ portrayed the same source material from different points of view was Giotto and Duccio’s portrayal of Christ entering Jerusalem. Giotto used intense shades of blue and white and designed dramatic/emotive postures for the human characters present in the panel, by such means creating a contemplative mood and building a sense of mystery—through which viewers who approach this painting may “feel” or search for a religious presence within themselves. Duccio, on the other hand, established a much more lively urban setting through combining layers of naturalistically painted architecture (as seen in any Renaissance town) with a large, bustling crowd of men, women, and children playing on the side. It is evident that Duccio’s primary focus was to tell the narrative of Christ in a convincing and realistic setting fleshed out with interesting story-like details.