Author: Isabel Moore

In class on Wednesday, we began our discussion of neoclassicism. As we discussed in the previous class, the neoclassicism movement coincided with the publication of the Encyclopédie, a multivolume reference book that represents the ideals of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was a resurgence in the interest of logic and morality and a prioritization of knowledge. These new ideas resulted in new art as well as a shift towards art movements rather than periods of stylistic trends that defined art in the previous centuries. We learned that a movement is classified by intentional choices artists make somewhat collaboratively.

Neoclassicism was the first of the shifts towards movements rather than periods of style. During this period, there was a revival of interest in classical art and ideals partially field by The Grand Tour where wealthy young men would travel Europe as the last stage of their education. As there was an interest in antiquity, students would often travel to Italy on the Grand Tour which influenced art and style in Western Europe.

For example, we looked at Chiswick House which William Kent designed for Lord Burlington. Lord Burlington had gone on the Grand Tour and returned to England with inspiration from Roman architecture. He wanted to model the house after Renaissance buildings he saw abroad which were ultimately inspired by antiquity. We compared the Chiswick House to Andrea Palladio’s Villa Rotunda, as the Chiswick House is almost identical to Palladio’s 16th-century work. During the Renaissance, Palladio drew inspiration for his Villa Rotunda from the Pantheon and therefore both the Villa Rotunda and the Chiswick House are drawing from antiquity.

In addition to modeling art and architecture directly off Renaissance and Classical works, the Neoclassicism movement involved an interest in revisiting classical ideals. David’s Oath of the Horatii is a scene from French classical theater. The scene shows the three Horatii brothers who have been chosen to represent the Romans in their war against the Albans. However while the three brothers are taking their oath to fight, three women in the corner are grieving their inevitable loss, as one of the Horatii brothers is married to an Alban woman. The work ultimately is about morality which is a very neoclassical idea.

In class today, we shifted focus from the Baroque to the Rococo period. Following the death of Louis XIV, there was a shift in interest from the grandeur that was used to communicate the power of the absolute monarchy to the private indulgence of the nobility. Now that the nobility was no longer required to pay periodic visits to Versailles, the class rooted itself in Paris where private residences known as hôtel particuliers were a more intimate and private indulgence. While the building facades would have been small due to the cramped architecture in Paris, the interiors were ornate and decorative. However, whereas in Versailles the decoration was bold and large-scale, the style of hôtel particular decor was lighter and more delicate. Additionally, decorative elements were not strictly symmetrical which we learned is an important distinguishing factor between Rococo and Baroque styles.

Next, we looked at several Rococo works that were commissioned by and or painted for the nobility. I noticed these works all shared a theme of indulgence. In Jean-Antoine Watteau’s A Pilgrimage to Cythera, a large group of noble people is leaving the island of Cythera after leaving an overly enjoyable day in a fantastical setting. In Watteau’s Gersaint’s Signboard, while there is a larger message about the end of Louis XIV’s monarchy, we see members of the nobility shopping for art and luxury objects. In Boucher’s Portrait of Madame de Pompadour, the woman, who was the king’s mistress, is shown in her boudoir which was a private luxurious room meant for relaxation and private indulgence. Fragonard’s The Swing is not only an example of a painting that would be displayed in a boudoir, but depicts a scene of sexual indulgence for the patron. 

The rococo works painted for a bourgeoise audience were much different. While the color palette and style were similar, the subject matter and message of these works were intended to communicate a message about moralistic, wholesome values.

In class yesterday, we continued to look at works from the northern Netherlands. We looked at two different landscapes: Jan van Goyen’s Pelkus Gate Near Utrecht. We used these two images to identify what details of subject matter, style, and composition are important to look at in landscape works. Next, we looked at different genres of painting, still life and genre paintings. We learned that there is a hierarchy in the arts placing certain subject matter above others in terms of what was deemed worthy. In both the still life and genre paintings we looked at, I thought it was interesting how the artists incorporated transient messages into the otherwise ordinary scenes. For example, in Heda’s Still Life with Oysters, the broken glass serves as a reminder of transience and the pitfalls of vanity as it relates to piety. 

After we concluded our discussion of the Netherlands, we shifted focus to 16th century France. For some contextual knowledge of the political climate in the region at the time. When Louis XIV assumed his role as king, he was wary of civil uprisings and established an absolute monarchy. We learned how the Palace of Versailles was a symbol to communicate this power. 

In class on Tuesday, we began by discussing some contextual information about Europe in the 17th century. As the Reformation spread, countries started to associate with one religion. A country’s religious alignment contextualized the art produced in that region during this time. In class, we looked at art from the Netherlands which was split into southern and northern regions where the north became Protestant and the south remained Catholic. The first artist we looked at was Peter Paul Rubens who we learned would go on to influence art for decades and was a catalyst for impressionism in France. Although Rubens converted to Protestantism at one point in his life, he ultimately converted back to Catholicism when he moved back to Flanders. This contextualizes his work The Elevation of the Cross which is not only an altarpiece with religious subject matter but was made in the style of a triptych so as to call upon historical Catholic traditions. We’ve discussed in previous classes that the Counter-Reformation employed religious imagery as a strategy to differentiate themselves from Protestantism which was a fairly anti-iconic religion. In terms of style, Rubens’ Marie de Medici Queen of France Landing in Marseilles is an example of Rubens’ painterly technique which became very influential. In addition to the painterly brushstrokes which add a sense of movement and spontaneity, Rubens constructs a dynamic composition (diagonals and figures in motion).

In Northern Holland, while the subject matter was not religious, the dynamic Baroque style is still present. We looked at Frans Hals’ The Jolly Toper. The work is animated as the figure holds his hand out toward the viewer as if to offer his glass. He looks as though he has been caught in mid-action which is a quintessential element of Baroque style. Additionally, much like in Rubens’ work in the southern Netherlands, there are visible brushstrokes that add a sense of spontaneity. However, we learned that Hals added these brushstrokes after painting an otherwise traditional portrait. He called these added loose brushstrokes his “handwriting”. I think it is interesting that while the goal was to make the work look spontaneous and quick, it was very calculated.

In class today we went to the museum to learn about different methods of printing. It was a very special experience to learn about printing alongside works by famous printmakers. We learned about two primary processes: relief and intaglio. We were able to interact with the works up close and observe the differences between these processes. We observed that while woodcut prints cannot achieve crosshatching or variations in line width across the same line, engravings are recognizable through these finer details that can be achieved. I took a wood carving class in high school so I have an understanding of what this process is like. Looking at some of the relief prints made from wood carving was especially striking as I am familiar with how difficult this process is, especially when it comes to achieving fine detail. Once again, interacting with these works at the museum allowed us to examine fine differences between these processes. My favorite observation was the realization that many etchings we saw were made to look like engravings. At first glance, they were very similar in style, but with the ability to look at the works up close, we saw that the etchings consisted of “imperfections” or evidence of penmanship whereas engravings are characterized by smooth and consistent lines that are achieved by moving the burin across the medium.

During class on Monday, we continued our discussion of Baroque art in Italy and Spain. We started off by looking at Bernini’s David. Bernini depicts David during a specific moment between two bursts of movement. We compared the work to the Discobolus which assumes a similar position yet an impossible one whereas Berinini’s David is in an achievable pose. The work is very true to life, as he studied is own face to capture the correct emotion. It was especially interesting to learn how this work is not displayed in a way that best captures the dramatic effect but in a way that allows viewers to examine Bernini’s skillful craftsmanship.

We next looked at Bernini’s The Ecstasy of St. Teresa. We learned how Bernini created a coextensive space, a concept that was important to Baroque art which was often intended to engage the viewer and convince the viewer of some truth. We connected the idea of using coextensive space to convince the viewer of an event to Ignatius of Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises, as he encourages readers to engage themselves in their visions of religious stories.

Of the works we looked at from Spain, my favorite was Las Meninas by Velazquez. We learned that not only is every figure in the work identifiable, but Velazquez also placed himself in the work, as he is working on a canvas that we can see on the left side of the image. It is interesting to consider how this is thought to be a painting about painting, as it includes the three primary elements necessary for a painting – an artist, a subject, and a viewer.

During class on Wednesday, we began by discussing Masaccio’s frescos in the Brancacci chapel. The patron’s name was Pietro, so he asked Masaccio to paint scenes from Saint Peter’s life. The first fresco we looked at was the Tribute Money scene. It was interesting to consider how since this is not a commonly depicted scene in art, then the artist could not refer to other renditions and therefore must be well-versed in the bible story to ensure all the necessary details and meanings are present. We discussed the way Masaccio used a continuative narrative to tell the story, his use of gestures, framing, and color theory to direct the viewer’s eye, as well as his interest in depicting accurate and interesting human physiognomies. His skillful depiction of expressive figures is also present in his fresco The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise. My favorite detail from this fresco is how the light in the scene is consistent with the light in Tribute Money which connects the two adjacent frescos. The Holy Trinity with the Virgin, St. John, and Two Donors was the last of Masaccio’s frescos that we looked at in class. We learned how difficult it is to depict the holy trinity, as the artist must include the Father, the Son, and the holy spirit as equals. Masaccio used space to create a meaningful hierarchy of the figures in the work.

Next, we looked at Michelozzo’s Palazzo Medici-Riccardi. The city palace had a typical three-story structure which Mechelozzo clearly separated by treating the surface of each story differently. The first floor is heavily rusticated, the middle story features lighter rustication, and the top story is smooth. This technique makes the building feel lighter as it goes up in space. Additionally, each floor is smaller than the previous one which adds to this illusion. The house was built for the Medici family and the rusticated surface on the bottom of the building affirms their authority while the increasing smoothness in the top stories represents stability. The internal courtyard is decorative and it originally featured Donatello’s David at it’s center. We discussed how David was a civic symbol in Florence, as he is a symbol communicating the victory of the underdog. The Medici chose to have David in their courtyard to make a statement about their power, but when the Medici were expelled from Florence, the Florentine state moved the sculpture from the courtyard of the Medici palace to the courtyard of the town hall, as it was such an important figure. We also looked at Paolo Uccello’s Battle of San Romano which was originally made for the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi. I thought it was especially interesting how the Medici family’s coat of arms is disguised in the oranges in the scene.

In class on Wednesday we began by discussing the studia humanitatis, the study of human works, rhetoric, literature, art, etc. with an emphasis on drawing on ancient knowledge and practices. We also discussed some background information to contextualize the period such as the introduction of the printing press in Italy in 1464 which allowed for the spread of knowledge and the Florentine guilds which were the ruling body of the republic at the time. The first work we discussed was the doors of the Baptistry of Saint John in the Florence Cathedral. The guild of wool merchants who were caring for the baptistery held a competition to elect an artist to complete the doors. We looked at the competition entries from the two finalists, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi. I thought it was especially interesting how we compared the two designs by first finding similarities and then highlighting differences. Although the panels looked similar at first, once we singled out the similar aspects and then discussed how the artists treated the same subject matter differently, it was easier to see why Ghiberti was selected, as his composition was more dynamic.

Although Brunelleschi was not selected to complete the doors for the baptistery, we discussed how he became a very successful architect. Brunelleschi designed the dome of the Florence Cathedral which became so famous the entire building became known as Il Duomo. I thought it was interesting how Brunelleschi exemplified his use of ratios and relationships. For example, the marble sheathing below the dome is a visual representation of some of the relationships he used to design the dome. We next looked at Brunelleschi’s Osepedale degli Innocenti which also includes decorative evidence of structural ratios.

Finally, we looked at Donatello’s The Feast of Herod which exemplifies artists; interest in creating convincing depictions of space with the use of linear perspective.

During Wednesday’s class, we began by continuing our discussion of 15th century art in Northern Europe. We first looked at Sluter’s Wall of Moses which depicts six life-sized prophets. The figures were originally painted which we learned is known as polychromy. The color, lifesize scale, and realistic rendering of the figures are representative of artists’ desire to make art look as life-like as possible.

Next, we discussed “The Arnolfini Portrait” by Jan van Eyck. Although there are some religious themes, the work is secular. As artists show an increasing desire to achieve naturalism in their work, we learned how artists such as van Eyck used disguised symbolism as a system of conveying meaning. van Eyck incorporates many details that can be interpreted as disguised symbolism. For example, the figures in the portrait are not wearing their shoes, and two pairs of shoes are visible on the floor to emphasize this. We learned that the removals of shoes can indicate holy ground and in this case, the figures have removed their shoes to show they are aware of the holiness of the ritual they are participating in. I thought the imagery used to demonstrate the public and private spheres and the different roles that men and women were expected to assume at that time was especially interesting. We also discussed van Eyck’s “Man in a Red Turban.” The image is likely a self portrait, as the figure is looking directly at the viewers, or how van Eyck would have seen himself while he was painting from his own image in a mirror. We also noted how, should this be a self portrait, van Eyck is wearing a red scarf around his head. In “The Arnolfini Portrait,” one of the figures in the mirror is seen wearing a red turban, indicating that van Eyck may have placed himself in the scene. He also signed “The Arnolfini Portrait” to say ‘Jan van Eyck was here’ which supports the theory that he painted himself into the scene and/or witnessed the scene himself.