{"id":4227,"date":"2022-03-15T14:18:31","date_gmt":"2022-03-15T18:18:31","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/web.colby.edu\/thelantern\/?p=4227"},"modified":"2022-06-09T11:29:58","modified_gmt":"2022-06-09T15:29:58","slug":"youre-speaking-my-language-jacob-lawrences-the-life-of-toussaint-louverture","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/web.colby.edu\/thelantern\/2022\/03\/15\/youre-speaking-my-language-jacob-lawrences-the-life-of-toussaint-louverture\/","title":{"rendered":"You’re Speaking My Language: Jacob Lawrence’s The Life of Toussaint L\u2019Ouverture"},"content":{"rendered":"

During the Fall 2021 semester, students in <\/em>Cultural Encounters: Engaging with Literature and Media (FR128) and <\/em>The Rise and Fall of Versailles (FR232), created museum labels with a focus on the historical context of Toussaint Louverture\u2019s life.<\/em><\/p>\n

Each class went to the Colby Museum of Art to see the exhibit J<\/em>acob Lawrence: The Life of Toussaint L\u2019Ouverture, and all the students were able to contribute their interpretations of the prints during their visits. Then the students worked individually on a print of their choice before being paired with the student from the other class who chose the same print. Next they collaborated to develop and write museum labels in French, selecting the most relevant details of the historical context, before translating them into English.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u2013Val\u00e9rie Dionne, Associate Professor of French<\/em><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Jacob Lawrence: The Life of Toussaint L\u2019Ouverture<\/em> at the Colby Museum<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The Birth of Toussaint<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Toussaint was born enslaved in 1743 in Cap-Fran\u00e7ais on the Br\u00e9da plantation, which, as was the custom, served as his last name: Pierre Dominique Toussaint Br\u00e9da. In spite of the love between mother and child we sense here, enslaved children generally grew up separated from their parents, hence the somber atmosphere rendered by Jacob Lawrence\u2019s use of dark colors. This is the first silk screen in the series, and it sets the tone for those that follow. The beams on the ceiling and walls suggest a prison and the oppression suffered by enslaved people. But there is a touch of yellow too, a symbol perhaps of light and hope in anticipation of the revolution that would see Saint-Domingue become the free nation of Haiti.<\/p>\n

La Naissance de Toussaint<\/em> (The Birth of Toussaint)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Toussaint na\u00eet en esclavage en 1743 \u00e0 Cap-Fran\u00e7ais, sur la plantation Br\u00e9da, laquelle, comme ce fut coutume, lui donna son nom : Pierre Dominique Toussaint Br\u00e9da. Jacob Lawrence fait ressortir l’amour entre m\u00e8re et fils tout en sachant que dans la pratique les enfants d’esclaves grandissaient s\u00e9par\u00e9s de leurs parents, d’o\u00f9 l’ambiance pesante rendue par les couleurs sombres. Cette premi\u00e8re de la s\u00e9rie de s\u00e9rigraphies donne le ton pour toutes celles qui vont suivre. Les poutres au plafond et aux murs \u00e9voquent la prison ainsi que l’oppression subie par les Noirs. Cependant, on voit aussi une touche de jaune, peut-\u00eatre symbole de lumi\u00e8re et d’espoir, comme pour anticiper la r\u00e9volution qui verrait Saint-Domingue devenir l’\u00e9tat libre de Ha\u00efti.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Jacob Lawrence, The Birth of Toussaint<\/em> from The Life of Toussaint L’Ouverture<\/em>, 1986.
Silkscreen on paper, 29 1\/4 x 19 1\/2 in. (74 x 50 cm). The Lunder Collection in honor of Colby College President David A. Greene and Carolyn Greene, 2020.022.1<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The Coachman<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Toussaint did not share the fate of other enslaved people, especially that of the Bossales, who came directly from Africa and who are depicted here as tiny, insignificant background figures. He worked as a coachman for the plantation owner, Bayon de Libertat. The contrasting colors of the team of horses, one light gray, one dark, may be seen to represent how different his status was from that of other enslaved people. In this, the second silk screen in the series, Lawrence shows Toussaint firmly holding the reins, as if to foreshadow the power he would later hold. As a coachman, Toussaint was in contact not only with white people but with mixed-race and enslaved people as well, which allowed him to witness their pain firsthand. He was also known to be a talented horseman and called the Centaur of the Savanna. His long rides over the island led him to discover strategic positions that would prove useful in his military planning.<\/p>\n

Toussaint\u2019s resourcefulness earned him the trust of both enslaved people and of Bayon, who served as his protector. During the slave rebellion of 1791, he in turn would save the plantation owner\u2019s life.<\/p>\n

Le Cocher<\/em> (The Coachman)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Le quotidien de Toussaint ne ressemblait pas \u00e0 celui des autres esclaves, surtout pas \u00e0 celui des Bossales, venus directement d’Afrique et que l’on voit repr\u00e9sent\u00e9s \u00e0 l’arri\u00e8re-plan sous forme de personnages minuscules et insignifiants. Il travaillait comme cocher pour le propri\u00e9taire de la plantation, Bayon de Libertat. Les couleurs contrast\u00e9es de l’attelage, un cheval gris p\u00e2le, l’autre gris fonc\u00e9, pourraient sugg\u00e9rer le statut \u00e0 part dont il jouissait. Dans cette deuxi\u00e8me s\u00e9rigraphie de la s\u00e9rie, on le voit tenir fermement les r\u00eanes, comme pour annoncer le pouvoir qu’il allait d\u00e9tenir plus tard. Le r\u00f4le de cocher mit Toussaint en contact avec non seulement les Blancs mais aussi les m\u00e9tis et les autres esclaves, ce qui lui permit d’observer leurs souffrances de pr\u00e8s. Excellent cavalier, il fut surnomm\u00e9 le Centaure de la savane. Ses longues chevauch\u00e9es \u00e0 travers l’\u00eele lui firent conna\u00eetre de nombreux endroits strat\u00e9giques qui lui servirent plus tard dans ses op\u00e9rations militaires.<\/p>\n

Son intelligence inspirait confiance aupr\u00e8s des esclaves mais aussi de Bayon, qui lui servit de protecteur. En 1791, lors de la r\u00e9volte des esclaves, Toussaint lui sauva la vie \u00e0 son tour.<\/p>\n

\u2013Elsa Fevre + Will Molson<\/p>\n

Strategy<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Here we see Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Papillon, Jeannot Bullet, and Georges Biassou poring over a map of Saint-Domingue. As Biassou\u2019s aide-de-camp, Toussaint is helping strategize in preparation for a battle that would take place in January 1793, the same month that France\u2019s Louis XVI was beheaded. An army led by these four men had built a fort in the mountains, the Fort de la Tannerie, which the French Republican General Laveaux and his men captured, seizing arms and seventeen cannons. Following this defeat, Toussaint began organizing strategy sessions with rebellious enslaved people in anticipation of other battles.<\/p>\n

Jacob Lawrence depicts the figures in earthy tones of brown and beige, and includes streaks of bright red among the plants and trees behind them. But the background is gray and dark, undoubtedly to suggest the intensity and importance of their strategizing and the conflicts that lie ahead. The vivid color in this somber setting may be seen to show how both thrilling and dangerous the battle for freedom was for enslaved people.<\/p>\n

Strat\u00e9gie<\/em> (Strategy)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Ici on voit Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Papillon, Jeannot Bullet et Georges Biassou pench\u00e9s sur une carte de Saint-Domingue. En tant qu’aide-de-camp de Biassou, Toussaint participe \u00e0 l’\u00e9laboration d’une strat\u00e9gie militaire en pr\u00e9vision de la bataille qui allait avoir lieu en janvier 1793, le m\u00eame mois qui vit Louis XVI monter \u00e0 l’\u00e9chafaud. Les quatre hommes firent construire le Fort de la Tannerie dans les montagnes, mais le G\u00e9n\u00e9ral Laveaux et ses forces fran\u00e7aises r\u00e9publicaines le prirent d’assaut, s’emparant de 17 canons et quantit\u00e9 d’armes. \u00c0 la suite de cette d\u00e9faite, Toussaint se mit \u00e0 organiser des r\u00e9unions similaires avec des esclaves, en pr\u00e9vision de nouvelles batailles.<\/p>\n

Jacob Lawrence repr\u00e9sente les personnages dans des tons chauds, du beige et du marron, mais il inclut aussi des traits rouge vif le long des plantes et des arbres qui les entourent, mettant ainsi en valeur l’intensit\u00e9 de ces s\u00e9ances et des conflits \u00e0 venir. Dans ces taches de couleur vive sur fond sombre on pourrait \u00e9galement voir ce qui fut s\u00fbrement pour les esclaves l’irr\u00e9sistible attrait de la dangereuse et enivrante lutte pour la libert\u00e9, tel celui de la lumi\u00e8re et de la chaleur d’une flamme.<\/p>\n

Dondon<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

In this, the fourth silk screen in the series, Jacob Lawrence references the 1795 attack the Spanish launched against Toussaint and French Republicans in defiance of the Peace of Basel in which Spain recognized France\u2019s colonization of Saint-Domingue. It was a costly victory for Toussaint, a brutal, bloody fight that he would later comment on in a letter to his friend Laveaux: \u201cWe mourn the deaths of many good men, and find little compensation in the numbers of enemies who perished at our hands.\u201d The scene depicted here undoubtedly takes place after Toussaint has recaptured the town of Dondon. We see him on horseback, manifestly exhausted and looking solemn, surrounded by women and children, some with their arms raised to hail the victors.<\/p>\n

The choice of colors is similar to that in Strategy<\/em>, with bright reds and blues in the townspeople\u2019s clothing and Toussaint dressed again in brown. In Strategy<\/em>, Toussaint\u2019s pants are white; here, it is the color of his horse, Bel Argent, reminiscent of Napoleon\u2019s and thereby indicative of a measure of equality between the two men. \u201cFrom the leader of the Blacks to the leader of the Whites\u201d is how Toussaint addressed Napoleon in their correspondence. Along with Toussaint\u2019s fatigue, the color gray suggests the heavy load leaders bear and the afflictions the struggle for freedom entails.<\/p>\n

Dondon<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Ici, Jacob Lawrence fait r\u00e9f\u00e9rence \u00e0 l’attaque lanc\u00e9e par les Espagnols contre Toussaint et ses alli\u00e9s fran\u00e7ais r\u00e9publicains en 1795, au m\u00e9pris du Trait\u00e9 de B\u00e2le par lequel l’Espagne reconnaissait la colonisation fran\u00e7aise de Saint-Domingue. Ce fut une bataille sanglante qui pesa lourd sur Toussaint, ainsi qu’il le confia dans une lettre \u00e0 son ami Laveaux: “Nous d\u00e9plorons la mort de beaucoup d’hommes de valeur et ne trouvons gu\u00e8re de compensation dans le grand nombre d’ennemis qui ont p\u00e9ri sous nos coups.” La sc\u00e8ne repr\u00e9sent\u00e9e ici a sans doute lieu \u00e0 la suite de la reprise de la ville de Dondon. On voit Toussaint \u00e0 cheval, \u00e9puis\u00e9, l’air sombre, entour\u00e9 de femmes et d’enfants dont certains levant les bras au ciel pour saluer les troupes victorieuses.<\/p>\n

L’utilisation des couleurs rappelle celle que l’on a vue dans Strat\u00e9gie<\/em>: du rouge et du bleu vifs pour les v\u00eatements des habitants de la ville, du marron, ici encore, pour ceux de Toussaint. Dans Strat\u00e9gie<\/em>, c’est le pantalon de Toussaint qui est blanc; ici, c’est son cheval, Bel Argent, qui n’est pas sans rappeler celui de Napol\u00e9on, cr\u00e9ant ainsi une mesure d’\u00e9galit\u00e9 entre les deux hommes. “Du grand chef des Noirs au grand chef des Blancs”, voil\u00e0 comment Toussaint s’adressait \u00e0 Napol\u00e9on dans leur correspondance. Le gris sugg\u00e8re non seulement son \u00e9tat de fatigue mais \u00e9galement sa lourde charge de chef et le malheur qui accompagne immanquablement toute lutte pour la libert\u00e9.<\/p>\n

\u2013Lily Koltun + Jackie Legutko<\/p>\n

The Capture<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Toussaint\u2019s forces, then aligned with Spain, are shown overrunning the town of Marmelade, which,  in 1793, was held by French Republicans and defended by troops led by the mixed-race soldier Andr\u00e9 Vernet. Toussaint won the battle by convincing Vernet to change sides. Vernet immediately joined Toussaint\u2019s staff and would later marry one of his nieces. Twelve hundred of the defenders who survived the attack sought refuge at the Puilboreau plantation near Ennery, where they recounted their defeat to \u00c9tienne Polverel, only to hear themselves lambasted as cowards.  They reacted by returning to Marmelade, Toussaint\u2019s new command post, to fight alongside him.<\/p>\n

Toussaint is portrayed in red, like a Spanish general, but also because the color of blood evokes what was undoubtedly his ferocity and mercilessness on the battlefield. We see him on a white horse with a gold saber at his side, beneath a gray sky suggestive of the violence and cruelty of war, a feeling enhanced by the dark green plants that frame the soldiers. The image can be interpreted in two ways: one in which the men are running away from French Republican troops \u2014the horses seem frightened, as if it were impossible to tell what direction the enemy was coming from\u2014and the other in which Toussaint\u2019s men are taking Marmelade, with the high grass suggesting the flames of war and the horses\u2019 faces implying rage and determination. History has tended to accredit the latter interpretation.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Jacob Lawrence, The Capture<\/em> from The Life of Toussaint L’Ouverture<\/em>, 1987. Silkscreen on paper, 29 1\/2 x 19 1\/2 in. (75 x 50 cm). The Lunder Collection in honor of Colby College President David A. Greene and Carolyn Greene, 2020.022.5<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

La Prise de Marmelade<\/em> (The Capture)<\/strong><\/p>\n

En 1793, les troupes de Toussaint, encore alli\u00e9es \u00e0 l’Espagne, prirent aux Fran\u00e7ais r\u00e9publicains la ville de Marmelade que d\u00e9fendaient les forces du m\u00e9tis Andr\u00e9 Vernet. Toussaint emporta la bataille en faisant changer de bord celui-ci qui devint l’un de ses lieutenants et devait plus tard \u00e9pouser sa ni\u00e8ce. 1 200 hommes qui avaient subi la d\u00e9faite cherch\u00e8rent refuge sur la plantation Puilboreau, pr\u00e8s d’Ennery. Ils racont\u00e8rent la bataille \u00e0 \u00c9tienne Polverel, qui s’y trouvait, mais se firent vertement critiqu\u00e9s par ce dernier qui les traita de l\u00e2ches. Ils s’en retourn\u00e8rent \u00e0 Marmelade, devenu poste de commande de Toussaint, pour se rallier \u00e0 ses c\u00f4t\u00e9s.<\/p>\n

On voit Toussaint tout de rouge v\u00eatu, tel un g\u00e9n\u00e9ral espagnol, mais la couleur du sang \u00e9voque \u00e9galement la f\u00e9rocit\u00e9 de ce redoutable homme de guerre sans piti\u00e9. On le voit sur son cheval blanc, son sabre dor\u00e9 bien visible, avan\u00e7ant sous un ciel gris dont la lourdeur rappelle la violence et la cruaut\u00e9 de la guerre, sentiment renforc\u00e9 par le noir et le vert fonc\u00e9 des plantes qui servent de cadre aux cavaliers. C’est une image qui invite deux interpr\u00e9tations : soit les hommes sont en train de fuir devant l’avanc\u00e9e des troupes fran\u00e7aises r\u00e9publicaines \u2013 les chevaux semblent avoir peur, comme s’ils ne savaient pas d’o\u00f9 venait l’ennemi \u2013 soit les hommes de Toussaint sont en train de reprendre Marmelade, les hautes herbes sugg\u00e9rant les flammes de la guerre et les naseaux des chevaux respirant rage et d\u00e9termination. L’Histoire semblerait avoir accr\u00e9dit\u00e9 cette derni\u00e8re version.<\/p>\n

General Toussaint<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

The title serves as a reminder that Toussaint was a general under both the Spanish monarchy and the French Republic. The time he spent with the Spanish represented a major part of his military training. Governor Garcia viewed him as a highly \u201cefficient and competent\u201d soldier and awarded him a gold medal in the name of the king of Spain. Not long after, Toussaint switched sides, aligning himself with the French, who had abolished slavery, whereas Spain had refused to do so. His bloodred uniform is suggestive of both the Spanish and Republican French military garb of the times, but the decorations are those of the French army.<\/p>\n

This portrait could be entitled General Toussaint Louverture, statesman and military genius, feared by the English and French alike, hated by plantation owners, revered by Blacks.<\/em> His numerous military exploits inspired many enslaved Black people to join forces with him. His ornate uniform\u2014in particular, the tuft of white feathers\u2014bears witness to the change of status that saw him rise from being enslaved to becoming a highly decorated general. In depicting Toussaint, many artists have chosen to give him lighter-colored skin, but Jacob Lawrence emphasized his blackness. It should be noted that this rendering was based on a nineteenth-century painting entitled Toussaint L\u2019Ouverture<\/em> by Nicolas Eustache Maurin, a white man. Lawrence altered his skin color to enhance his grandeur and dignity.<\/p>\n

Le G\u00e9n\u00e9ral Toussaint<\/em> (General Toussaint)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Le titre nous rappelle que Toussaint avait le grade de g\u00e9n\u00e9ral sous la Monarchie espagnole et, plus tard, la R\u00e9publique fran\u00e7aise. Sa formation militaire avait eu surtout lieu chez les Espagnols, qui reconnurent en lui un combattant hautement “efficace et comp\u00e9tent”, selon l’appr\u00e9ciation du gouverneur Garcia qui lui attribua une m\u00e9daille au nom du Roi d’Espagne. Peu de temps apr\u00e8s, Toussaint se rallia au camp fran\u00e7ais r\u00e9publicain, la France ayant aboli l’esclavage alors que l’Espagne s’y refusait encore. L’uniforme rouge-sang rappelle celui des Espagnols autant que celui des Fran\u00e7ais, mais les d\u00e9corations sont celles de l’arm\u00e9e fran\u00e7aise.<\/p>\n

Le titre de ce portrait pourrait \u00eatre : “Le G\u00e9n\u00e9ral Toussaint, homme d’\u00e9tat et brillant strat\u00e8ge militaire, redout\u00e9 \u00e0 la fois des Anglais et des Fran\u00e7ais, d\u00e9test\u00e9 par les propri\u00e9taires de plantation, adul\u00e9 par les Noirs.” Ses nombreux exploits militaires inspir\u00e8rent bien des esclaves \u00e0 se battre \u00e0 ses c\u00f4t\u00e9s. Son habit militaire abondamment d\u00e9cor\u00e9, en particulier la touffe de plumes blanches, t\u00e9moigne du chemin parcouru par cet homme n\u00e9 en esclavage.<\/p>\n

Plusieurs artistes ont pr\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9 donner \u00e0 Toussaint une couleur de peau plus claire, mais Lawrence insiste sur sa n\u00e9gritude. Pour cette s\u00e9rigraphie, il s’inspira d’un tableau du XIXe si\u00e8cle G\u00e9n\u00e9ral Toussaint Louverture<\/em>, ex\u00e9cut\u00e9 par Nicolas Eustache Maurin, un homme blanc. En lui redonnant un teint fonc\u00e9, Lawrence cherchait \u00e0 rehausser l’honneur et la dignit\u00e9 de son sujet.<\/p>\n

\u2013Catherine Burns + Kelly Putnam<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Jacob Lawrence, General Toussaint<\/em> from The Life of Toussaint L’Ouverture<\/em>, 1986. Silkscreen on paper, 30 1\/2 x 20 1\/2 in. (77 x 52 cm). The Lunder Collection in honor of Colby College President David A. Greene and Carolyn Greene, 2020.022.6<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The Opener<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Toussaint was known as the Black Napoleon, the father of Black men, the Black child of the French Revolution, the Black George Washington, the Bonaparte of the Caribbean, the African hero, and the Hannibal of Saint-Domingue. Here we see him just after he has learned that Mirebalais and Verrettes have fallen into enemy hands. Having decided to attack the English and Spanish forces there, he leaves Gona\u00efves, makes his way up the Artibonite, and advances on Verrettes with an army ten thousand strong and the ultimate goal of taking Saint-Marc.<\/p>\n

In his depiction of this moment of the battle, Lawrence emphasizes the multifaceted image Toussaint projected through the use of color. The white of the horse equates his grandeur with that of Napoleon\u2019s while also suggesting Toussaint\u2019s desire for peace and equality. The use of red, evoking danger, violence, and war, brings out his prowess as a warrior and at the same time his pride in and love for Saint-Domingue, his native land.<\/p>\n

The meaning of the surname Louverture, which was a late addition, remains a subject of debate. The French called him l\u2019ouverture<\/em> (meaning \u201cthe opening\u201d) in recognition of his talent as a peacemaker and his ability to recapture lands from them. One Frenchman is reported to have exclaimed, \u201cThis fellow manages breakthroughs everywhere!\u201d Toussaint was quick to adopt the name and wore it proudly, like a medal. It should be noted as well that l\u2019ouverture<\/em> might also suggest a future of promise for Black people, a new starting point. Note too that Toussaint was surely familiar with the hallowed voodoo deity Papa Legba, who was intermediary and messenger to God. The Creole chant that opens voodoo ceremonies is Papa Legba, ouvri bay\u00e8 pou moin!<\/em> (Papa Legba, open the gates for me!)<\/p>\n

L’ouverture<\/em> (The Opener)<\/strong><\/p>\n

On surnommait Toussaint le Napol\u00e9on noir, le P\u00e8re des Noirs, l’enfant noir de la R\u00e9volution fran\u00e7aise, le George Washington noir, le Bonaparte des Cara\u00efbes, le h\u00e9ros africain ou l’Hannibal de Saint-Domingue. On le voit ici alors qu’il vient d’apprendre la chute de Mirebalais et de Verrettes. Il prend la d\u00e9cision d’attaquer les forces anglaises et espagnoles qui s’y trouvent, quitte Gona\u00efves, remonte l’Artibonite et s’avance sur Verrettes \u00e0 la t\u00eate d’une arm\u00e9e forte de 10 000 hommes, l’objectif final \u00e9tant la reprise de Saint-Marc. <\/p>\n

Par le choix des couleurs, Lawrence insiste sur l’image aux multiples facettes de Toussaint. Le blanc de son cheval met sa valeur au m\u00eame niveau que celle de Napol\u00e9on tout en rappelant son d\u00e9sir de paix et d’\u00e9galit\u00e9, alors que le rouge, symbole de danger, de violence et de guerre,  rappelle ses exploits sur le champ de bataille ainsi que sa fiert\u00e9 et son amour pour sa terre natale.<\/p>\n

La signification du surnom “Louverture”, qui fut un ajout tardif, reste mati\u00e8re \u00e0 d\u00e9bat. D’apr\u00e8s certains, les Fran\u00e7ais l’appelaient ainsi en raison de ses talents de conciliateur et de sa capacit\u00e9 \u00e0 leur reprendre le terrain qu’ils avaient conquis. L’un d’entre eux se serait exclam\u00e9, “Cet homme fait ouverture partout !” Toussaint n’a pas h\u00e9sit\u00e9 \u00e0 s’approprier le nom, le portant fi\u00e8rement telle une m\u00e9daille. Notons aussi que l’on peut tr\u00e8s facilement faire le lien entre “l’ouverture” et un nouveau d\u00e9part vers un avenir plus prometteur pour les Noirs. Par ailleurs, Toussaint connaissait s\u00fbrement la divinit\u00e9 vaudou Papa Legba, interm\u00e9diaire et messager de Dieu. Le chant cr\u00e9ole sur lequel s’ouvrent les c\u00e9r\u00e9monies vaudou dit : Papa Legba, ouvri bay\u00e9 pou moin <\/em>! soit, Papa Legba, ouvre-moi la barri\u00e8re !<\/p>\n

The March<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

The eighth silk screen in Jacob Lawrence\u2019s series portrays the march on Saint-Michel on October 9, 1794. We see not a ragtag group of fighters but a veritable army, organized and large in number, all the men wearing identical uniforms, marching in tight formation, and bearing arms. The taking of Saint-Michel, which garnered Toussaint considerable esteem in military circles, signaled a new beginning for his country. The resounding victory wrought by Toussaint\u2019s military genius inspired his troops and the country as a whole to take up arms against the Spanish, the English, and the Royalist French.<\/p>\n

The red of the uniforms stands in contrast to the high green grass that is occasionally spotted with red, suggesting the blood that will be, or has already been, spilled. Associating blood with the earth is Lawrence\u2019s way of showing that the men are fighting to win back their homeland and renders them inseparable from it and from the freedom victory will bring.<\/p>\n

La Marche<\/em> (The March)<\/strong><\/p>\n

La huiti\u00e8me s\u00e9rigraphie de la s\u00e9rie montre les troupes de Toussaint avan\u00e7ant sur Saint-Michel le 9 octobre 1794. Il ne s’agit plus d’un groupe disparate d’hommes vaguement arm\u00e9s, mais d’une v\u00e9ritable arm\u00e9e marchant au pas, sous le m\u00eame uniforme et pr\u00e9sentant les armes de mani\u00e8re identique. La prise de Saint-Michel, qui valut \u00e0 Toussaint la grande consid\u00e9ration des milieux militaires, marqua un tournant dans l’histoire du pays. Cette victoire \u00e9clatante, fruit de son g\u00e9nie militaire, inspira ses troupes et le pays tout entier \u00e0 prendre les armes contre les Espagnols, les Anglais et les Fran\u00e7ais royalistes.<\/p>\n

Le rouge fonc\u00e9 des uniformes contraste avec le vert des hautes herbes, celles-ci marqu\u00e9es \u00e7a et l\u00e0 de taches rouge vif, symboles du sang qui allait \u00eatre, ou qui avait d\u00e9j\u00e0 \u00e9t\u00e9, vers\u00e9 pour la cause. En liant terre et sang, Lawrence nous rappelle que les hommes se battaient pour l’ind\u00e9pendance de leur patrie, qu’ils ne faisaient qu’un avec elle ainsi qu’avec la libert\u00e9 que la victoire apporterait.<\/p>\n

\u2013Emma Abbott + Emma Gilmore<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Jacob Lawrence, The March<\/em> from The Life of Toussaint L’Ouverture<\/em>, 1995. Silkscreen on paper, 19 1\/4 x 28 3\/4 in. (49 x 73 cm). The Lunder Collection in honor of Colby College President David A. Greene and Carolyn Greene, 2020.022.8<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Saint-Marc<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Toussaint is about to mount a horse, a gray one as opposed to the white one depicted elsewhere in the series. It would not be implausible to imagine him heading off to survey a present or future battlefield for his uncommon gifts as a military strategist were universally recognized.<\/p>\n

Toussaint first attempted to wrest Saint-Marc from the British in 1794 but failed after he had abandoned the Spanish and joined forces with French Republicans. In 1795, upon learning that Mirebalais and Verrettes had fallen, he began the siege of Saint-Marc, where he fought not only the British but their Royalist French allies as well. After long and intense fighting, the enemy forces were driven back to the town of Valli\u00e8re, where they were forced to lay down their arms. By August 1795 the abolition of slavery had been reaffirmed throughout Saint-Domingue. The British would not definitively abandon the island until 1798. <\/p>\n

Saint-Marc<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

On voit Toussaint sur le point de monter \u00e0 cheval, celui-ci bien gris \u00e0 l’encontre du cheval blanc que l’on voit ailleurs dans la s\u00e9rie. Il serait tout \u00e0 fait raisonnable de l’imaginer se mettant en route pour aller surveiller un champ de bataille, pr\u00e9sent ou futur, car ses qualit\u00e9s de strat\u00e8ge militaire furent reconnues de tous. Toussaint avait d\u00e9j\u00e0 essay\u00e9, sans succ\u00e8s, de reprendre Saint-Marc aux Anglais en 1794, peu apr\u00e8s sa d\u00e9cision de se d\u00e9tourner de la monarchie espagnole en faveur des valeurs des R\u00e9publicains fran\u00e7ais. En 1795, la nouvelle de la chute de Mirebalais et Verrettes l’incita \u00e0 assi\u00e9ger la ville \u00e0 nouveau, malgr\u00e9 la pr\u00e9sence des Royalistes fran\u00e7ais aux c\u00f4t\u00e9s des troupes anglaises. \u00c0 l’issue de longs et furieux combats, l’ennemi fut repouss\u00e9 jusqu’\u00e0 la ville de Valli\u00e8re et contraint de d\u00e9poser ses armes. En ao\u00fbt 1795, l’abolition de l’esclavage \u00e9tait r\u00e9affirm\u00e9e partout dans Saint-Domingue. Les Anglais n’abandonneraient d\u00e9finitivement l’\u00eele qu’en 1798.<\/p>\n

Contemplation<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Toussaint is shown studying at his desk by the light of a tricolored flame, the blue, white, and red indicative of the French Republican values of liberty, equality, and fraternity that inspired him. His speeches and correspondence reveal a familiarity not only with the condemnation of colonialism and slavery in Histoire des deux Indes<\/em>, but with the writings of Machiavelli, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. He spoke three languages: the Creole of Saint-Domingue; Fon, the African dialect of Allada (Toussaint was the son of an Allada prince); and French, which he learned for his dealings with France and other foreign powers. Following the successful end to the war of independence, Toussaint devoted much of his personal life to the economic development of the island.<\/p>\n

Lawrence uses complementary reds and greens to create a strong contrast between Toussaint, in a gilded vest, and his surroundings. While the gold, red, and white of his attire seem to express vitality, the darker background suggests his seriousness, composure, and solitude.<\/p>\n

Contemplation<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Toussaint \u00e0 son bureau, pench\u00e9 sur un livre qu’il \u00e9tudie \u00e0 la lumi\u00e8re d’une bougie, le bleu, blanc, rouge des flammes symbolisant les valeurs fran\u00e7aises qui l’animaient : libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9. Ses discours et sa correspondance t\u00e9moignent d’une connaissance non seulement de la condamnation du colonialisme et de l’esclavage que l’on trouve dans Histoire des deux Indes<\/em>, mais des \u00e9crits de Machiavel, Montesquieu et Rousseau. Il parlait trois langues : le Cr\u00e9ole de Saint-Domingue, Fon, le dialecte africain de l’Allada (le p\u00e8re de Toussaint \u00e9tait un prince allada), et fran\u00e7ais, langue qu’il avait apprise pour mieux n\u00e9gocier avec la France et d’autres puissances \u00e9trang\u00e8res. Une fois la guerre d’ind\u00e9pendance gagn\u00e9e, Toussaint consacra une grande partie de sa vie au d\u00e9veloppement \u00e9conomique de son pays.<\/p>\n

            Lawrence utilise des couleurs compl\u00e9mentaires, le rouge et le vert, pour mettre en valeur le contraste entre Toussaint, v\u00eatu d’un gilet rehauss\u00e9 de dorures, et son cadre. Si le rouge, l’or et le blanc de ses habits semblent sugg\u00e9rer de la vitalit\u00e9, les couleurs sombres de l’arri\u00e8re-plan r\u00e9affirment son s\u00e9rieux, son calme et sa solitude.<\/p>\n

Ellen Pan + Megan Yorsz<\/p>\n

Flotilla<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

A fleet of French ships carrying Napoleon\u2019s brother-in-law, General Charles Leclerc, arrived in Saint-Domingue in 1802. The French viewed Toussaint\u2019s declaration of independence the year before as a threat to their colonial holdings in the Caribbean. Leclerc was instructed to convince the islanders of France\u2019s good intentions and pacifist designs. Were that to fail, he was to hunt down \u201crebellious\u201d army generals to undermine morale and leave the island leaderless, following which all Africans were to be returned to plantations, effectively restoring slavery and reestablishing France\u2019s dominion. In the event, the island\u2019s inhabitants fought back successfully and maintained their freedom.<\/p>\n

Flotilla<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

La flotte fran\u00e7aise arrive \u00e0 Saint-Domingue en 1802 avec \u00e0 son bord le beau-fr\u00e8re de Napol\u00e9on, Charles Leclerc. Les Fran\u00e7ais avaient vu dans la d\u00e9claration d’ind\u00e9pendance que Toussaint avait prononc\u00e9e l’ann\u00e9e pr\u00e9c\u00e9dente une menace \u00e0 leurs possessions dans les Cara\u00efbes. Leclerc avait pour ordre de convaincre les habitants des bonnes intentions et des desseins pacifiques des Fran\u00e7ais puis, en cas d’\u00e9chec, de pourchasser les g\u00e9n\u00e9raux “rebelles.” Une fois Saint-Domingue d\u00e9barrass\u00e9 de ses chefs militaires et le moral du peuple bris\u00e9, les Noirs devaient \u00eatre renvoy\u00e9s dans leurs plantations afin de r\u00e9tablir l’esclavage et de r\u00e9affirmer la mainmise de la France. En l’occurrence, les habitants parvinrent \u00e0 repousser les Fran\u00e7ais et \u00e0 sauvegarder la libert\u00e9 qu’ils avaient si ch\u00e8rement acquise.<\/p>\n

The Burning<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Acting under Toussaint\u2019s orders, General Henri Christophe burned down the major port city of Le Cap, depicted here under smoke-laden skies, on February 4, 1802, leaving behind neither food nor shelter for the arriving French troops. As Toussaint later told Jean-Jacques Dessalines, \u201cIt is imperative that the land which has been bathed by our sweat should provide not the slightest nourishment to the enemy. [. . .] destroy and burn everything, so that those who come to re-enslave us always have before their eyes the image of hell they deserve.\u201d<\/p>\n

Other cities would suffer the same fate, and the strategy would prove successful. Whereas the islanders were able to sustain themselves through their knowledge of nature and familiarity with the terrain, many of the French died of famine or yellow fever.<\/p>\n

Villes incendi\u00e9es<\/em> (The Burning)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Le  4 f\u00e9vrier 1802, le g\u00e9n\u00e9ral Henri Christophe, sous les ordres de Toussaint, r\u00e9duisit en cendres la grande ville portuaire du Cap, que Lawrence repr\u00e9sente ici sous un ciel charg\u00e9 de fum\u00e9e, afin de ne laisser aux troupes fran\u00e7aises qui allaient d\u00e9barquer ni vivres ni abris. Toussaint explique \u00e0 Dessalines: “il ne faut pas que la terre baign\u00e9e de nos sueurs puisse fournir \u00e0 nos ennemis le moindre aliment. […] faites tout an\u00e9antir et tout br\u00fbler, pour que ceux qui viennent nous remettre en esclavage rencontrent toujours devant leurs yeux l\u2019image de l\u2019enfer qu\u2019ils m\u00e9ritent.\u201d<\/p>\n

D’autres villes devaient subir le m\u00eame sort, et la strat\u00e9gie s’av\u00e9ra efficace. Alors que leur connaissance de la nature et du terrain permit aux habitants de Saint-Domingue de survivre, de nombreux Fran\u00e7ais p\u00e9rirent, victimes de la faim et de la fi\u00e8vre jaune.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Jacob Lawrence, The Burning<\/em> from The Life of Toussaint L’Ouverture<\/em>, 1997. Silkscreen on paper, 20 1\/2 x 30 3\/4 in. (52 x 78 cm). The Lunder Collection in honor of Colby College President David A. Greene and Carolyn Greene, 2020.022.12<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Toussaint at Ennery<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Toussaint, on his white horse, Bel Argent, is leading the charge at the Battle of Ennery, his troops the embodiment of unity, determination, and fervor as they head into combat against the French General Leclerc. In the brown earth in the foreground, flame-like blades of grass are colored blue, white, and red, suggestive here as elsewhere in the series of the French revolutionary values of liberty, equality, and fraternity.<\/p>\n

Toussaint \u00e0 Ennery<\/em> (Toussaint at Ennery)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Mont\u00e9 sur son cheval blanc Bel Argent, Toussaint m\u00e8ne la charge \u00e0 la bataille d’Ennery, ses troupes un mod\u00e8le d’unit\u00e9, de d\u00e9termination et de ferveur alors qu’elles se lancent contre les soldats de Napol\u00e9on sous le commandement du g\u00e9n\u00e9ral Leclerc. L’ocre de la terre au premier plan fait ressortir le bleu, blanc, rouge des brins d’herbe, symboles, ici comme ailleurs dans la s\u00e9rie, de la devise tripartite de la R\u00e9publique fran\u00e7aise : libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9.<\/p>\n

Ophelia Baxter + Su Park<\/p>\n

Deception<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

This is a depiction of Toussaint after he was taken prisoner on June 7, 1802. We see Leclerc and his men threatening him, their crossed swords and the black stiles of the chair symbolically indicating imprisonment. A year earlier, even though Saint-Domingue was still a French colony, the country enjoyed greater independence with Toussaint as its head. A republican constitution afforded freedom to all races, effectively reaffirming the abolition of slavery. It would lead to Toussaint being named governor of Saint-Domingue.<\/p>\n

This scene marks the beginning of the end of his long struggle with the French. An enraged Napoleon had sent Leclerc to conclude a pact with Toussaint, ostensibly allowing him to go into retirement while keeping his rank as general. It was a ploy. The actual aim was to restore slavery to the island. Toussaint was taken into custody and sent to prison in Fort de Joux, France, where he died from pneumonia on April 7, 1803.<\/p>\n

In this, the only silk screen in which whites appear, Lawrence uses dark colors to create an oppressive framework and reinforce the gravity of the situation. We are drawn to Toussaint, who is positioned in the middle of the scene, his white clothes suggesting that he alone has right on his side, having advanced the cause of freedom and the abolition of slavery. He is also the sole relatively stationary figure, unarmed and vulnerable, much as all Black people who were victims of the long oppression visited upon them by white people.<\/p>\n

La Ruse<\/em> (Deception)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Toussaint fut fait prisonnier le 7 juin 1802. On le voit assis, affal\u00e9, Leclerc et ses hommes le mena\u00e7ant, leurs sabres crois\u00e9s et les montants de la chaise une \u00e9vocation des mois de captivit\u00e9 qui l’attendent. Un an plus t\u00f4t, alors que Saint-Domingue \u00e9tait encore une colonie fran\u00e7aise, le pays jouissait d’une ind\u00e9pendance accrue sous sa direction, et une constitution r\u00e9publicaine garantissait la libert\u00e9 aux Blancs, aux m\u00e9tis, et aux Noirs, situation qui avait valu \u00e0 Toussaint d’\u00eatre nomm\u00e9 Gouverneur.<\/p>\n

Cette sc\u00e8ne marque le d\u00e9but de la fin de sa longue lutte avec les Fran\u00e7ais. Napol\u00e9on, furieux, avait envoy\u00e9 Leclerc \u00e0 Saint-Domingue sous pr\u00e9texte de n\u00e9gocier avec Toussaint un accord qui lui aurait permis de partir \u00e0 la retraite tout en maintenant son statut de g\u00e9n\u00e9ral. C’\u00e9tait une ruse, le v\u00e9ritable but de la man\u0153uvre \u00e9tant le r\u00e9tablissement de l’esclavage sur l’\u00eele. Toussaint fut transport\u00e9 en France, o\u00f9 il mourut d’une pneumonie le 7 avril 1803 \u00e0 la prison de Fort de Joux.<\/p>\n

C’est la seule s\u00e9rigraphie de la s\u00e9rie o\u00f9 l’on voit des Blancs. Les couleurs fonc\u00e9es cr\u00e9ent une ambiance oppressive et mettent en valeur la gravit\u00e9 de la situation. Nous sommes attir\u00e9s par le personnage de Toussaint, plac\u00e9 au centre de l’image, et dont les habits blancs laissent entendre que lui seul, l’homme qui a consacr\u00e9 sa vie \u00e0 la cause de la libert\u00e9 et \u00e0 l’abolition de l’esclavage, avait le droit de son c\u00f4t\u00e9. Il est \u00e9galement le seul personnage immobile, d’autant plus vuln\u00e9rable que sans armes, \u00e0 l’image de tous les Noirs victimes de l’oppression des Blancs.<\/p>\n

To Preserve Their Freedom<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

The scene depicted in this last of the silk screens in the series takes place after Toussaint\u2019s imprisonment. The islanders have taken up the fight against France\u2019s efforts to reinstitute slavery. We see five ordinary people and growers, men, women, and children, all in revolt; Black people of different sexes, ages, and backgrounds wearing different clothes and dressed in different colors: red, white, brown, and blue. Meanwhile, a new army has been raised under the leadership of Henri Christophe and Jean-Jacques Dessalines, with the latter designated commander in chief by local warlords. In the end, the fervor of the revolutionaries, yellow fever, and hunger would prove the undoing of the French.<\/p>\n

Lawrence used a variety of bright colors to portray fighters on the move beneath clear skies. The scene is an illustration of the hope, strength, and courage that Toussaint inspired and shows how powerful the resistance became after his death. One of the figures is bleeding from the chest, proof of the many lives lost and the many sacrifices made for the cause of freedom. On January 1, 1804, the war of independence ended in victory for the people of Saint-Domingue, with full powers ceded to a new nation:  Haiti.<\/p>\n

Pour pr\u00e9server leur libert\u00e9<\/em> (To Preserve Their Freedom)<\/strong><\/p>\n

La sc\u00e8ne que l’on voit dans cette derni\u00e8re s\u00e9rigraphie de la s\u00e9rie a lieu apr\u00e8s  l’emprisonnement de Toussaint. Les cinq personnages repr\u00e9sentent les habitants de l’\u00eele qui se sont mobilis\u00e9s pour mettre en \u00e9chec le r\u00e9tablissement de l’esclavage malgr\u00e9 les efforts de la France. Sous un ciel d\u00e9gag\u00e9, on voit \u00e0 la fois des gens ordinaires et des cultivateurs, des hommes, des femmes, des enfants, tous engag\u00e9s dans la lutte. Ce sont des Noirs de sexe, d’\u00e2ge et de milieux divers, chacun habill\u00e9 de mani\u00e8re diff\u00e9rente, dans des couleurs vari\u00e9es : du rouge, du blanc, du marron et du bleu.  Parall\u00e8lement, Henri Christophe et Jean-Jacques Dessalines avaient lev\u00e9 une nouvelle arm\u00e9e, ce dernier ayant \u00e9t\u00e9 nomm\u00e9 commandant-en-chef par les chefs militaires locaux. La faim et la fi\u00e8vre jaune, et surtout la ferveur des habitants de Saint-Domingue, devaient finir par mettre les Fran\u00e7ais dehors.<\/p>\n

            Jacob Lawrence introduit des touches de couleurs vives pour les combattants qu’il montre en mouvement. Il s’agit d’une illustration de l’espoir, de la force et du courage que Toussaint avait inspir\u00e9s, la r\u00e9sistance aux Fran\u00e7ais esclavagistes n’ayant cess\u00e9 de s’accro\u00eetre apr\u00e8s sa mort. La tache de sang sur la poitrine de l’un des personnages t\u00e9moigne des nombreuses vies perdues et des nombreux sacrifices que la lutte pour la libert\u00e9 avait n\u00e9cessit\u00e9s. La guerre d’ind\u00e9pendance prit fin le 1er janvier 1804 avec la victoire du peuple de Saint-Domingue et la naissance d’un nouveau pays : Ha\u00efti.<\/p>\n

\u2013Elizabeth Hiebert + Preston Lee<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Jacob Lawrence, To Preserve their Freedom<\/em> from The Life of Toussaint L’Ouverture<\/em>, 1988. Silkscreen on paper, 20 1\/2 x 30 1\/2 in. (52 x 77 cm). The Lunder Collection in honor of Colby College President David A. Greene and Carolyn Greene, 2020.022.15<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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